Commercial vessels moving through the Strait of Hormuz and its surrounding waters have come under repeated attack since the United States and Israel launched their war on Iran nine months ago.
The conflict has transformed one of the world’s busiest shipping corridors into a dangerous passage for crews transporting oil, gas and other goods.
On Sunday, Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps said three “rogue oil tankers travelling an unauthorised route” in the strait were subject to “explosions and severe fires”.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recorded the deaths of at least 25 seafarers since the war started on February 28. Many of those killed have been citizens of India, one of the world’s largest suppliers of merchant sailors.
“It is unacceptable that throughout this conflict seafarers have been placed in harm’s way,” the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), a shipping trade association and advocacy group, told Al Jazeera.
“It is incumbent on all parties to take all necessary steps to safeguard the safety of seafarers who are simply going about their job and have found themselves, through no fault of their own, in a highly volatile situation,” an ICS spokesperson added.
The latest incidents have raised questions about the safety of civilian crews, their ability to refuse dangerous assignments and the protections available under international law.
The Strait of Hormuz is a crucial passage for international shipping, Before the war, roughly one-fifth of global oil consumption passed through the waterway, which connects the Gulf to the Arabian Sea.
Iran essentially closed the strait after the US-Israeli attacks began, warning that ships trying to sail through the waterway without authorisation could be targeted. Meanwhile, Washington has imposed a naval blockade on Iranian ports.
Attacks on shipping have involved missiles, projectiles and naval mines that have damaged vessels, set them on fire or sunk them. According to the IMO, at least 129 incidents have been reported.
On Thursday, Iranian forces said five oil tankers and a tugboat caught fire in separate incidents in the strait.
Separately, a Marshall Islands-flagged tanker named Velos Sapphire suffered an explosion north of Qatar, killing one crew member.
October was particularly dangerous for commercial shipping with at least 31 vessels hit.
The victims are largely civilian merchant sailors working on oil tankers, cargo ships and other commercial vessels.
Many come from countries far removed from the conflict, including India, whose nationals have suffered particularly heavy losses, with at least 16 killed.
In June, three Indian sailors were killed in US strikes on commercial vessels near Oman, prompting New Delhi to summon a senior American diplomat.
On Tuesday, Gandhar Nahim Ajij from Gujarat died after the cargo vessel MSV Al Jusufi was struck off Oman. Thirteen other Indian crew members were rescued.
In October, 12 crew members were injured when the Panamanian-flagged tanker On Peace was struck near Oman. Eleven of those injured were Indian nationals.
People from other countries have also been among the dead. In September, two Filipino crew members were killed when the Saudi tanker Sidr was hit by projectiles near the Strait of Hormuz.
Iranian civilian maritime workers have also suffered casualties.
In May, the head of Iran’s merchant marine union said at least 44 Iranian seafarers had been killed and 29 injured since the start of the war.
Beyond the threat of death or injury, the war has also taken a toll on sailors’ mental health, according to the ICS spokesperson.
“Shipowners are working hard to ensure that impacted seafarers have access to mental health support services as well as increased access to calls with family and friends,” the spokesperson added.
About 6,000 seafarers remained stranded near the Strait of Hormuz in October, the IMO said in late August.
In March, an arrangement was negotiated between maritime unions and shipping companies through the International Bargaining Forum, under which seafarers could refuse to enter designated danger zones and receive company-funded repatriation and compensation equivalent to two months of basic wages.
At the same time, the International Transport Workers’ Federation said the agreement also provides for increased wages and twice the standard compensation for seafarers who die or suffer a disability.
However, those protections do not necessarily cover every seafarer. And seafarers in the Gulf also face grave mental suffering, maritime charities warned in May, saying many faced loneliness, anxiety and distress.
“As we have throughout the conflict, we strongly urge all ships operating in the region to conduct thorough risk assessments and to maintain vigilance in line with the latest BMP [best management practices] maritime security guidelines,” the ICS spokesperson said.
Under Article 38 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, ships and aircraft “enjoy the right of transit passage” , a right that no country may suspend.
Article 17 also guarantees foreign vessels the “right of innocent passage” through another country’s territorial waters. Under Article 19, such passage is considered innocent provided it is not “prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of the coastal state”.
While the IMO in June sought arrangements to evacuate stranded sailors, efforts to establish safe passage have faced repeated obstacles as attacks in and around the Strait of Hormuz continue unabated.
Academic Abdul Khalique says while international law undoubtedly does apply, “its enforcement is the weak link.”
“The law is clear on the obligations. The gap is political will and practical enforcement,” Khalique, head of the Liverpool John Moores University Maritime Centre, told Al Jazeera.
“For seafarers themselves, legal protections matter most when paired with operational avoidance.”
